One of the most common questions teachers ask is, “Which children are at risk of struggling with reading?” Identifying these risk factors early is not only useful for intervention but also for the implementation of preventative programs that support early literacy development. Research consistently shows that certain factors increase the likelihood of reading difficulties, and understanding these can help educators provide targeted support from an early age.

1. Inadequate Reading Instruction

• Explicit, structured synthetic phonics instruction is essential for all children, particularly those at risk of reading difficulties (National Reading Panel, 2000).
• Poor instructional practices can prevent even typically developing children from acquiring foundational reading skills.
• Impacts all students, not just those with inherent risk factors—ineffective instruction can create or worsen literacy challenges.

2. Lack of Early Screening and Early Intervention

• Research suggests the risk of future reading difficulties for children with language impairments can be reliably estimated in preschool (Murphy et al., 2016).
• Assessing both language and early literacy skills such as blending and segmenting is crucial for identifying children at risk of later reading difficulties and can be done prior to any formal reading instruction.
• Early intervention significantly improves reading outcomes, reducing the severity and long-term impact of reading difficulties.

3. Speech Sound & Language Difficulties

• A systematic review and meta-analysis found that children with speech sound difficulties are at an increased risk of language and reading difficulties (Walquist-Sorli et al., 2024). 
• Language impairments, such as difficulties with vocabulary, sentence structure, and narrative skills can contribute to ongoing reading comprehension and written expression difficulties.

4. Hearing Impairment

• Hearing is crucial for the development of speech, language, phonological awareness and early literacy skills. 
• Minimal hearing loss periods such as children who experience recurrent ear infections (otitis media) are at an increased risk of experiencing future reading difficulties. 
• Populations such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples are at a higher risk of developing otitis media and hearing loss as a result of this (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2014).

5. Cognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

• Students with conditions such as intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), and dyslexia often face challenges when learning to read.
• Students with cognitive difficulties make thinking, learning, and problem-solving more challenging. Difficulties in these areas make it harder to grasp early literacy concepts. However, a meta analysis focused on students with significant cognitive disabilities found SSP instruction improved their word recognition skills even in those with significantly low IQ scores (Dessemontet et al., 2019).
• Students with ADHD may find it difficult to maintain attention during phonics instruction and therefore fall behind their peers.
• Dyslexia, a specific learning disorder affecting reading and spelling, is another well-documented neurodevelopmental condition that can make decoding and word recognition particularly challenging.

6. Socioeconomic Disadvantage

• Students with conditions such as intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), and dyslexia often face challenges when learning to read. 
• Students with cognitive difficulties make thinking, learning, and problem-solving more challenging. Difficulties in these areas make it harder to grasp early literacy concepts. However, a meta analysis focused on students with significant cognitive disabilities found SSP instruction improved their word recognition skills even in those with significantly low IQ scores (Dessemontet et al., 2019).
• Students with ADHD may find it difficult to maintain attention during phonics instruction and therefore fall behind their peers.
• Dyslexia, a specific learning disorder affecting reading and spelling, is another well-documented neurodevelopmental condition that can make decoding and word recognition particularly challenging.

7. Family History of Dyslexia

• Students with conditions such as intellectual disability (ID), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), and dyslexia often face challenges when learning to read. 
• Students with cognitive difficulties make thinking, learning, and problem-solving more challenging. Difficulties in these areas make it harder to grasp early literacy concepts. However, a meta analysis focused on students with significant cognitive disabilities found SSP instruction improved their word recognition skills even in those with significantly low IQ scores (Dessemontet et al., 2019).
• Students with ADHD may find it difficult to maintain attention during phonics instruction and therefore fall behind their peers.
• Dyslexia, a specific learning disorder affecting reading and spelling, is another well-documented neurodevelopmental condition that can make decoding and word recognition particularly challenging.

8. Chronic Absenteeism or Educational Disruption

• Frequent school absences due to illness, family mobility, or other disruptions can hinder children’s exposure to structured literacy instruction.
• Studies indicate that chronic absenteeism in the early years negatively impacts literacy development and increases the risk of later academic struggles (Gottfried & Ansari, 2023).

Conclusion

Understanding these risk factors enables teachers to implement targeted interventions and preventative strategies to support children before reading difficulties become entrenched. By ensuring high-quality, evidence-based instruction and early intervention, educators can make a significant difference in improving reading outcomes for at-risk students.

Reference List

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 2014. Ear disease in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. Retrieved from: https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/indigenous-australians/ear-disease-in-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-island/summary

Dessemontet, R., Martinet, C., de Chambrier, D., Martini-Willemin, B., Audrin, C. 2019. A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of phonics instruction for teaching decoding skills to students with intellectual disability. Educational Research Review, Volume 26, 2019, Pages 52-70, ISSN 1747-938X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.01.001.

Gottfried, M., Ansari, A. 2023. Detailing new dangers: linking kindergarten chronic absenteeism to long-term declines in executive functioning. doi: 10.1086/712426

Hoff, E. 2006. How social context support and shape language development. Developmental Review, 26:55-88

Murphy, K., Justice, L., O’Connell, A., Pentimonit, M., Kaderavek, J. 2016. Understanding risk of reading difficulties in children with language impairment. DOI: 10.1044/2016_JSLHR-L-15-0110

National Reading Panel. 2000. Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.

Snowling M., Gallagher, A., Frith, U. 2003. Family risk of dyslexia is continuous: Individual differences in the precursors of reading skill. Child Development, 74:358-373. 

Walquist-Sorli, L., Omur C., Furnes, B., Nergard-Nilssen, T., Donolato, E., Melby-Lervag, M. 2025. Speech sound difficulties, language and reading. Retrieved from: https://asha.figshare.com/articles/online_resource/Speech_sound_difficulties_language_and_reading_Walquist-S_rli_et_al_2024_/27849828/2?file=50610099